Alexander the Great and Hellenistic Rule
The Persian era ended abruptly with the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon. In 332
BCE, on his march towards Egypt, Alexander encountered fierce resistance at Gaza, which was
defended by a eunuch commander named Batis and Arab mercenaries. The city withstood a
siege for several months (two to five, according to different accounts) before being stormed.
Most of the defenders were killed, inhabitants enslaved, and the city was repopulated, possibly
with local Bedouins, and reorganized as a Greek polis (city-state).
Following Alexander's death, his empire fragmented. Palestine became a contested borderland
between two successor kingdoms: the Ptolemaic dynasty based in Egypt and the Seleucid
dynasty based in Syria. Control shifted back and forth through numerous wars. Gaza was
strategically important in these conflicts, witnessing battles like Ptolemy I's victory over
Demetrius I in 312 BCE. Under both Ptolemies and Seleucids, the process of Hellenization
intensified – the adoption of Greek language, culture, religion, philosophy, and urban planning
spread throughout the region, profoundly influencing local societies. Gaza, in particular, gained
a reputation as a significant center for Hellenistic learning and philosophy.
Hasmonean Revolt and Kingdom
Seleucid attempts to accelerate Hellenization and suppress Jewish religious practices under
Antiochus IV Epiphanes provoked a major uprising in Judea around 167 BCE, known as the
Maccabean Revolt. Led by the Maccabee family (also known as the Hasmoneans), the revolt
eventually succeeded in establishing an independent Jewish kingdom by 129 BCE. The
Hasmonean rulers expanded their territory aggressively, conquering large parts of Palestine.
Jonathan the Maccabee attacked Gaza around 145 BCE, destroying its suburbs. Later, the
Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus besieged Gaza for a year, finally capturing and
destroying it around 96 BCE, reportedly massacring its council. Despite these destructive
conquests, Gaza endured and was rebuilt. The Hasmonean period marked a resurgence of
Jewish political power and settlement in parts of the land, including areas near Gaza.
Roman Conquest and Rule
Hasmonean independence proved relatively short-lived. Internal strife within the dynasty invited
Roman intervention, and in 63 BCE, the Roman general Pompey Magnus captured Jerusalem,
ending Jewish sovereignty and incorporating the region into the Roman sphere. Gaza was
rebuilt under Roman auspices by Pompey or his governor Gabinius. It was later granted to
Herod the Great by Emperor Augustus around 30 BCE, forming a distinct unit within his client
kingdom. After Herod's death (4 BCE), Gaza was annexed to the Roman province of Syria.
Under Roman rule, particularly during the Pax Romana, Gaza generally prospered, receiving
grants from various emperors and maintaining its diverse population of Greeks, Romans, Jews,
Egyptians, Persians, Nabateans, and others. A city senate of 500 members governed local
affairs. However, Roman rule over Judea was often turbulent, marked by simmering resentment
and major Jewish uprisings. The First Jewish Revolt (66-73 CE) resulted in the catastrophic
destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE by Titus. Gaza itself was burned by
Jewish rebels during this war. The Second Jewish Revolt (Bar Kokhba Revolt, 132-135 CE)
erupted after Emperor Hadrian planned to build a Roman colony, Aelia Capitolina, on the ruins
of Jerusalem and banned circumcision. This revolt was brutally crushed by Julius Severus,
eading to immense casualties and the devastation of numerous villages.
Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Hadrian took steps to erase Jewish connections to the land.
Jerusalem was rebuilt as Aelia Capitolina, a pagan city forbidden to Jews. Around this time, the
province of Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina. Many sources suggest this renaming was a
deliberate political act by the Romans, using a name derived from the Philistines – ancient
enemies of the Israelites – to suppress Jewish identity and sever their historical ties to the land
after the repeated rebellions. This use of geographical naming as an instrument of political
power and historical revisionism provides a significant precedent for later disputes over identity
and territory.
Byzantine Palestine and the Rise of Christianity
With Emperor Constantine's conversion and the Edict of Milan (313 CE), Christianity
transitioned from a persecuted sect to the favored, and eventually official, religion of the Roman
Empire. Palestine, as the land of Jesus's life and ministry, became central to the Christianized
empire, often referred to as the "Holy Land." Constantine and his family sponsored the
construction of magnificent churches at key holy sites, including the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. This imperial patronage
attracted floods of pilgrims and spurred the growth of monasticism, particularly in the Judean
wilderness. Gaza also saw Christianization, notably under Saint Porphyrius, who is credited with
destroying the city's pagan temples in the early 5th century.
Administratively, the region underwent reorganization. By the late 4th century, Palestine was
divided into three provinces: Palaestina Prima (centered on the coast and Judea, capital
Caesarea), Palaestina Secunda (Galilee and surrounding areas, capital Scythopolis/Beit
She'an), and Palaestina Tertia or Salutaris (the Negev and southern Transjordan, capital Petra
or Elusa). Jerusalem's ecclesiastical importance grew, with its bishop recognized as a Patriarch
over the three Palestinian provinces by the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE.
During the Byzantine period (roughly 4th-7th centuries), the region had a diverse population.
While Christianity became dominant, significant Jewish communities thrived, particularly in
Galilee (Palaestina Secunda), where they enjoyed considerable autonomy and produced
important works like the Jerusalem Talmud. Samaritan communities also existed, though they
faced persecution after several revolts against Byzantine rule. The status of minorities
fluctuated; early Byzantine rule saw relative tolerance for Jews, granting citizenship but banning
practices like circumcision. Later emperors like Theodosius imposed restrictions, forbidding
Jews from holding public office and building new synagogues, though enforcement was
sometimes lax. A Jewish revolt in Galilee in 352 CE was suppressed. This complex picture
demonstrates that religious identity did not always dictate political alignment or experience
under imperial rule.
The late Byzantine period saw renewed conflict. The Sasanian Persian Empire invaded Syria
and Palestine in 614 CE, capturing Jerusalem with the help of some Jewish groups hoping for
deliverance from Byzantine rule. Churches were destroyed, and the True Cross was carried off.
However, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius mounted a successful counter-offensive, defeating
the Persians and reclaiming Palestine by 628 CE. The Byzantine restoration, however, would be
short-lived. The Byzantine era firmly established the region's Christian sanctity, adding another
powerful layer of religious significance alongside its deep Jewish roots. This created the
tripartite religious landscape – Jewish, Christian, and soon, Islamic – that would define its future
complexities and conflicts.