Ottoman Conquest and Administration
The Mamluk Sultanate, weakened by internal strife and economic problems, faced a rising power to the north: the Ottoman Empire. In 1516, the Ottoman Sultan Selim I decisively defeated the Mamluk army at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo. This victory swiftly brought Syria and Egypt, including Palestine, under Ottoman control, initiating four centuries of rule from Istanbul (Constantinople).
Under the Ottomans, Palestine was generally not administered as a single unified province but was considered part of the larger region of Ottoman Syria (Sham). The territory was typically divided into several administrative districts known as sanjaks (or liwas). Key sanjaks covering parts of Palestine included Jerusalem, Nablus, Acre, and Gaza. These administrative boundaries sometimes shifted and did not always align with later conceptions of "Palestine," a factor that influences historical debates about the nature of Palestinian political identity prior to the 20th century. Gaza itself was sometimes administered as part of the Damascus Eyalet (province) or Sidon Eyalet, and under the Ridwan dynasty in the 16th century, it enjoyed a period as a regional capital.
Society, Demographics, and Economy
Throughout the Ottoman centuries, the population of Palestine remained predominantly Arab, consisting of a large Muslim majority and a significant Christian minority. A small Jewish community also persisted, largely concentrated in the four "holy cities" of Jerusalem, Hebron, Safad (Tzfat), and Tiberias, primarily comprising Sephardic Jews (descendants of those expelled from Spain) and older, Arabic-speaking Musta'arabi communities. Ottoman policy, like previous Muslim empires, generally allowed non-Muslim communities (millets) religious autonomy under their own leaders, subject to certain restrictions and the jizya tax.
Estimating the population precisely is difficult due to the nature of Ottoman census records, which were often incomplete, excluded certain groups like Bedouins, and were sometimes avoided by residents seeking to evade taxes or military conscription. However, available records and scholarly estimates provide a general picture. For instance, an Ottoman census for the districts of Jerusalem, Nablus, and Acre around 1878 indicated a population of roughly 462,000, comprising about 87% Muslim, 9% Christian, and 3-4% Jewish (including some foreign nationals not counted in the main census). Demographic estimates compiled by scholars suggest a slow population growth over the Ottoman centuries, with the Jewish percentage remaining small until the late 19th century.
Demographic Estimates of Palestine (Ottoman/Mandate Eras)
Sources: Based on estimates compiled by Sergio DellaPergola (2001) , drawing on Bachi (1975), and incorporating data points from other sources. Note: Figures are approximate estimates and vary slightly between sources. The 1914 Jewish figure includes significant recent immigration.
The early Ottoman centuries often brought relative stability compared to the late Mamluk period. However, later centuries witnessed periods of decline, characterized by heavy taxation, neglect by the central government, local power struggles, and occasional Bedouin raids or peasant revolts prompted by oppressive measures. Economically, Palestine remained largely agrarian, though its coastal cities like Jaffa and Acre saw increased trade with Europe from the 18th century onwards.
Late Ottoman Period: Change and Emerging Nationalisms
The final century of Ottoman rule (roughly 1800-1917) was a period of significant transformation. The central government in Istanbul attempted reforms (Tanzimat) aimed at modernization and centralization, but its authority in peripheral provinces like Palestine often remained weak. This allowed powerful local figures to emerge, such as Zahir al-'Umar, who carved out an autonomous sheikhdom in the Galilee in the mid-18th century, and Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, the governor of Acre who famously repelled Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion in 1799. Napoleon's brief campaign, followed by a decade of Egyptian occupation under Muhammad Ali (1831-1840), further disrupted Ottoman control and exposed the region to European military and political influence. Muhammad Ali's rule, while modernizing in some aspects, imposed harsh conscription and taxation, sparking a major Palestinian Peasants' Revolt in 1834. After European powers helped restore Ottoman rule in 1840, European influence continued to grow through the establishment of consulates, missionary activities, archaeological exploration, and economic investments.
This period also witnessed the birth of two national movements with conflicting aspirations in Palestine. Zionism emerged in late 19th-century Europe, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish national home or state, preferably in Palestine, as a solution to widespread anti-Semitism. Theodor Herzl's publication of Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) in 1896 galvanized the movement. This led to organized waves of Jewish immigration (Aliyot), starting with the First Aliyah in 1882. Zionist organizations like the Jewish National Fund (founded 1901) began systematically purchasing land for agricultural settlements (colonies). By 1914, the Jewish population had increased significantly, reaching perhaps 60,000 to 94,000 (estimates vary), with a substantial portion being recent immigrants.
Simultaneously, a modern Palestinian Arab identity and nascent nationalism began to crystallize. This developed within the context of a broader Arab cultural and political awakening (Nahda) throughout the Ottoman Empire, partly as a response to Ottoman centralization policies (Turkification) and increasingly in reaction to the perceived threat posed by Zionist immigration and land acquisition. Palestinian Arab notables and intellectuals participated in Ottoman political life, serving as deputies in the Ottoman parliament in various years. This late Ottoman era was thus far from static; it was a dynamic period marked by weakening imperial control, rising local and European influence, and the simultaneous emergence of competing Zionist and Arab/Palestinian national aspirations vying for the same land, setting the stage for the intense conflicts of the 20th century.